Reflecting upon the different models of the criminal justice system we Essay

Reflecting upon the different models of the criminal justice system we have studied, critically assess which you would most like - Essay Example Later on, the Judicature Act of 1873 was passed and the Criminal Appeal Act of 1907. Due process model According to Sanders, Young and Burton the English criminal system just like the American one, emphasizes on adversarial procedures and due process safeguards. The relevance of the due process in the English law is advised by the fact witnesses could be biased or the police force may interfere with the whole process. By insisting on a formal adjudicative process, the accused are able to get justice and beside, the entire process prevents the miscarriage of justice as an end to itself. In addition the due process discourages the law enforcement agencies from abusing power and breaking rules, while encouraging the primacy of the individual citizen. The role of the police in the criminal justice system is very constrained. As Wells and Quick (2010) observe in Wales and England, police can go as far taking an inquisitorial role but cannot force citizens to produce testimony against thei r will. The due process starts once an adversarial relationship has been formed or after becomes a suspect. In all fairness once can see that the role of the police is very limited in English and Wales criminal system. ... k (2010) the due process model as practiced in England and Wales, involves the use of procedural and evidentiary rules in order to avoid to prevent miscarriages of justice to the accused. Wells and Quick (2010) liken the due process model to an assembly line or an obstacle course designed to prevent the accused from progressing through the criminal process. The need for incorporation of the due process in the English and Wales criminal system is characterized by the elements of miscarriage of justice and observance of human rights. Another core element of the system is presumption of innocence doctrine, which is prescribed to by many other judicial systems all over the world. Presumption of innocence doctrine This is a core tenet in the criminal justice system, and is equally appreciated in the European Convention on Human Rights. The presumption of the innocence doctrine further suggests that the onus lies on the prosecution to prove the defendant’s guilt beyond reasonable do ubt. According to Wells and Quick (2010) by forcing the prosecution to prove its case against the accused in an adjudicative context, the accused acquires an enhanced opportunity to secure a favourable outcome. Shift from the due process system to the control system However, in the face of the increasing terrorist activities, and transnational crimes, the English government is under increasing pressure to adopt the crime control approach. At the same time, the English system is under pressure to initiate an appropriate legal framework to support the law enforcement agencies to control the levels of crime being experienced. The crime control model as suggested by Sanders, Young and Burton (2010) is based on the proposition that the repression of the criminal conduct is the main role of the

A Christmas Carol Essay Example for Free

A Christmas Carol Essay What evidence is there in A Christmas Carol of social, cultural and historical contexts? A Christmas Carol is rich with historical, cultural and social contexts, all poignantly intertwined throughout the text. As the story is set in Victorian times, we are immediately given a sense of time and place in stave 1, by descriptions of both customs and daily routines. As the tale was set so long ago, there were obviously no modern appliances or conveniences. Dickens shows this as he describes Scrooges counting house. Scrooge had a very small fire, but the clerks fire was so much very smaller that it looked like one coal, and tried to warm himself at the candle. We are also given an insight into the era when Dickens outlines customs in the streets Meanwhile the fog and darkness thickened so, that people ran about with flaring links, proffering their services to go before horses in carriages, and to conduct them on their way The language used, I believe, is also influential to the overall story. Again Dickens is setting a time frame, which the tale adheres to, and the phrases used by some characters highlight this I am sorry with all my heart to find you so resolute. We have never had any quarrel, to which I have been a party. But I have made the trial in homage to Christmas, and Ill keep my Christmas humour to the last, Stop till I shut the door of the shop. Ah! How it skreeks! There ant such a rusty bit of metal in the place as its own hinges From the beginning of the novel and, obviously due to its title, we can see that there is much influence from the cultural aspects of Christmas. As the story is set in the festive season, great emphasis is stressed on Scrooges attitudes compared to those around him at this traditionally jovial time of year/ This is a major factor in the structure of the story, although it is the general social and cultural side of the holiday rather than the religious meaning. In fact religion is only suggested once, It might be pleasant to them to remember upon Christmas Day, who made lame beggars walk and blind men see, but isnt as important as the suggestion of charity and kindness to ones fellow man. The social aspects of the time, particularly the attitudes of some upper class towards the lower classes, play an important role in the story and are voiced by, and then turned against, Scrooge. When asked whether he wishes to support a charity, Scrooge replies that prisons and workhouses are all the charity the poor need. The harshness of these remarks are later presented to Scrooge in a different context and he begins to realize the full error of his ways- a major point in the story. Dickens, contrary to Scrooges thinking, later criticizes these opinions when we are shown the extent of the Cratchits poverty. I believe the sympathy Dickens arouses when describing the house, stems from his own childhood where he was forced to work in a workhouse similar to those Scrooge talks about. This, I think, provides strong emotional aspects in the text and enables Dickens to effectively compel his audience to disagree with the social views presented.

Fan Violence Essay examples -- essays research papers fc

Sports fans must have certain rules and regulations against them in order to maintain violence outbreaks during games. For the past decade, fan violence has gotten more and more out of control. There should be certain limits for fans so that violence can be prevented during games. The route of fan behavior comes from many different things, all of which can escalate into very serious situations during games. That’s when it can get very dangerous for the fans and even for the players. There are lots of different examples of fan violence in sports. For instance, a Kansas City Royal’s fan attacked an umpire named Las Diaz (â€Å"Fan†). On April 30, 1993, a tennis fan named Gunter Parche, who was a fan of another player; stabbed Monica Seles. He was a fan of another tennis player (â€Å"Fan†). Cleveland Brown fans threw thousands of beer bottles, cups and debris onto the field after a penalty call was taken back from the Browns (â€Å"Fans throw†). Players, coaches, and referees had to sprint out of the football stadium. On January 25, 1995, Manchester United striker Eric Cantona, assaulted a fan during a game against Crystal Palace after a fan said a racial slur toward him (â€Å"Fan†). On August 29, 2004 an Irish priest, Neil Horan, burst out of the crowd to race the leader of a 5000 meter race in the 2004 Summer Olympics (â€Å"Fan†). On September 13, 2004, Texas Ranger pitcher Frank Francisco threw a chair at a fan during a game after the fan spoke inappropriate language to him (â€Å"Fan†). On November 19, 2004, a brawl broke out between the fans of the Detroit Pistons and the players (â€Å"Fan†). There are many different causes of misbehavior from fans. Of course not all fans do it, but there are many that do. Alcohol is usually the root to the fans menacing behavior during sports games. William Ligue Jr., who was fan at one of the games, admitted he drank before beating someone up (â€Å"Alcohol†). The fans were described as uncontrollable beasts. Winning is supposed to cause you to drink for celebration (â€Å"Alcohol†). And then losing is supposed to cause you to cry in your alcohol (â€Å"Alcohol†). The alcohol industry markets hugely on risk-taking fans (â€Å"Alcohol†). Maybe that is why fans are causing such problems at games. Fans are more inclined to be binge drinkers rather than non-fans. Studies found 53% of sports fans binge-drink 5 or more drinks in a short period of time as opposed to 41% of mal... ...es.† http://www.usatoday.com/sports/columnist/oconnor/2003-04-17-ian.x-htm 17 2003. 03 Feb. 2005 5.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Home fans Behaving Badly.† http://www.collegeathleticsclips.com/archives/000169.html 28 2004. 03 Feb. 2005 6.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Fans Rally Around Pacers.† http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A8746-2004Nov23.html 24 Nov 2004-03 Feb. 2005 7.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Fifteen Students Taken To Jail After Boilermakers’ loss.† http://www.landmark-project.com/citation_machine/index.php/mode=form&list=nonprint&cm-9. 26 Mar. 2000. 11 Feb. 2005 8.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Replay Riot.† http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/football/news/2001/12/16/jaguars_browns_ap/. 17 Dec. 2001. 11 Feb 2005 9.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Fans throw bottles after call against Saints.† http://www.usatoday.com/sports/nfl/saints/2001-12-17-fans.htm 18 Dec. 2001 11 Feb. 2005 10.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Fan violence.† http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/violence_in_sports 17 Feb. 2005 11.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Fans subject to conduct code.† http://sports.espn.go.com/nba/news/story?id=1993569 17 Feb 2005. 22 Feb 2005

Big Black Good Man

Big Black good Man and Battle Royal I believe Richard Wright's story â€Å"Big Black Good Man† was written in a time when racial prejudice was a major factor in society. In Today’s society we still have racial prejudice, but it is not as strong as back then. The point in which Richard Wright wanted to get by writing this story is that people should â€Å"never judge others by their race†. In the story, Olaf mentioned Jim was not the first black man he serviced, but he started to make drama of Jim’s behaviors in his head. I think Olaf was the type of person who is ignoring that he is a racist but he actually is one.This was the most important point that Richard Wright was trying to make. This story is focusing more on characters. There were two characters, which responded very differently to the black man. Olaf, whom was working in a hotel for guest services, has an average life, average job and also average thinking. Based on the story Olaf is a type of ma n that is happy with his life and lifestyle and respects others the way they are. Although, as soon as it comes to big black man who enters the hotel every thing about him suddenly changes, some unexpected fear surrounds him.However, every day of Jims stays in the hotel Olaf would gain more fears of a big black man. In his mind, Jim is a big, black, loud and violent man that wants to kill him. On the other hand, Lena responded very differently to the black man. Based on the story, Lena was poor and wiling to do anything such as prostituting to earn money, in order to take care of her four children. Even at the arguments she had with Olaf, she mentioned that he is just another man with manly needs â€Å"He’s just a man†¦I handle ‘im. † She was seeing his as an ordinary man who had good money and wants her; of course it was no fear of him to her conflicting than Olaf.She was called to Jim’s room every night and she was willing to continue. I believe she wouldn’t care if he is black or if he is big, all that matters was the reality of Jim as a man who has money to lead her for taking care of her children. They also ended up liking each other, and started dating and at the end of the story Jim was thankful to Olaf as well. Lena stopped prostituting and making love with Jim; she must have seen him as a good man so she was willing to drop her income. On the other hand, when the story ends Olaf realized Jim was not a violent and harsh man he actually is a big black good man.In addition, when it comes to comparing we can compare â€Å"Big Black good Man† by Richard and â€Å"Battle Royal† by Ralph Ellison. The point in which both narrators wanted to make was the fact of differences in race and struggling of being different. â€Å"Battle Royal† is about young African American who is ? struggling to have a place in their society. It was kind of hard for people back then to deal with this situation and it was al so hard for black people to get into white society. It was all about equality and identity, which they did not have, back then.However, this story was written in 1947, black society in the U. S. was struggling to find an identity for itself separate from the unfair force accrued by a white culture. Ellison uses the theme of blindness throughout the story as he describes the relations between the narrator and the characters in the story. The paper describes the story, beginning with a strange type of the death of the narrator's grandfather and the advice he gave him about life and how to behave as a black man. Grandfather’s advice leads the whole story making narrator to fallow his advice and using it trough his life.In the story, young black boy struggle to get ahead in a predominately white society, he wanted to reach this goal in using his grandfathers advice. His grandfather told him to â€Å"live with your head in the lion’s mouth. I want you to overcome ‘em with yeses, undermine ‘em with grins, agree ‘em to death and destruction, let ‘em swoller you till they vomit or bust wide open†. I believe his grandfather was trying to tell him to conform to the white people. The whole story shows his struggle and hardships his taking to reach his goal by fallowing grandpa’s advice.At the end of the story he also gives out a successful speech of this advice at his graduation. In conclusion, throughout time racism has been the cause of millions of deaths. In early centires racial prejudice was a major factor in society, now we see less racial prejudice. So many people still struggling because of racist people and some people are hiding their racisom. In both stories authors are trying to tell audiences stop judging people by their look, color and culture, there is absolutely no different between white and black it’s just a color. Human is a human and life goes on with all differences in people. Big Black Good Man â€Å"Big Black Good Man† Racism has existed for as long as humans have walked the earth. â€Å"Big Black Good Man,† by author Richard Wright takes place in 1957 in Copenhagen, Denmark at a cheap hotel on the docks. Olaf Jensen is a 60 year old white night porter who sees all kinds of people come there for a room. When Jim, a 6 1/2 foot tall black sailor who works for American Continental Line, arrives, the dilemma begins. Olaf is frozen by the sight of Jim and wonders whether he should give him a room. But we must read more deeply into the text to know what Olaf is actually feeling.Despite appearances, Olaf is not a racist because he has a multi-cultural background, he is afraid of Jim's size and power, not his skin color, and he feels insecure in Jim's presence. First, Olaf is not a racist because he has a multi-cultural background. In his youth Olaf was a in the services he was a sailor. While in the services over the world traveled all over the world. During his wor ld travels, Olaf has been exposed to a diversity of people from different background, races and cultures.While in navy, Olaf lived side by side with people of color â€Å"In his days, he’d worked and eaten and slept and fought with all kinds of men. † Olaf had been exposed to so much with so many culture. Olaf even lived in the melting pot on the world. â€Å"He lived in New York city for ten years. † For him to live so long in a city with such diversity suggests a open-mindedness to tolerance for different. During his travels, he even had learned 8 languages: â€Å"English, French, German, Danish, Dutch, Swedish, Norwegian and Spanish. He took the time to learn these languages so he could better understand the people he was associating with. This makes it hard to believe that he was a racist. 1950’s segregation was still going on at this time, but it didn’t make any difference to Olaf. He actually states â€Å"It was not the hotel did not admit men of color†¦. He took all comers, blacks, yellows, whites, and browns. † Olaf did not discriminate on the basis of skin color. â€Å"to Olaf men were men. † Second, Olaf is not a racist because he is afraid of Jim's size and power, not his skin color.Jim’s sheer size at â€Å" 61/2 feet into the air, almost touching the ceiling. † Would cause any men to be afraid. Olaf constantly emphasize Jim’s enormous physique and power, describe as â€Å"His chest bulged like barrel† and â€Å"his rocklike shoulders hinted mountain ridgesâ€Å" and â€Å"the stomach ballooned like a threatening stone. † Olaf description of Jim gives a great image of Jim as a massive size and intimating features. It is easy to understand Olaf fear of Jim. He afraid so Jim that â€Å"With just one look at Jim’s hands he would have shivers†. Olaf was completely terrified of Jim.Later in the story, Jim walked in to the office and demand Olaf to s tand. Standing inch apart Jim lifted his mammoth hand his around Olaf throat. † Olaf lost control of the reflex of his body and felt a hot stickiness flooding his underwear. Olaf fear made him loss control over his own bodily function. I only could imagine this situation and reacting any different then Olaf. Third, Olaf is not a racist because he feels insecure in Jim's presence. Olaf is a small 5†7† 60 years old Caucasian man. Although he wasn’t poor he wasn’t rich, either a lifetime of working, he was still only a night potter.In comparison, Jim who has money, youth and power. He envied Jim â€Å" the easy manner in which it moved with such a creeping powerful motion† He felt that Jim presence command attention and respect. Having this enormous men in his presence frightened and insulted Olaf. â€Å"He believed that this man had come here expressly to remind him how puny, how tiny, and how weak he was. † Olaf offers to take Jim‘s bag, but Jim replies â€Å"That‘s too heavy for you, big boy: I‘ll take it† Olaf feel that this man makes him inferior and less of a man. As a result, Olaf â€Å"Seethed against himself for his involuntary weakness†.He was angry for allowing this men to make him feel weak. Unable to stand up to Jim, he feels â€Å"Him self beaten†, stating â€Å"He thinks am nothing. † Olaf felt so belittle by this man specially after what happen with Jim in his office when due to true fear he wet him self he was so embarrassed that he couldn’t even tell his wife â€Å" he wept†¦. He went home and lied to his wife, he had an upset stomach. † Olaf was so embrace about what had happen he lied. Olaf was so insecure of him self after meeting Jim. This essay has made it clear that Olaf is not a racist but just a very afraid men.A men that aloud his fear cloud his judgments. Even thou he was afraid he never aloud him self to act upon his fears. T his story is a great example of how important close reading is. If you just focus on the vocabulary without putting any thought to what you read you could believe he is a racist. But once you look into the text and take into count the complete picture. An after only after you have read and reread is that the truth come to light. This story show us a great example of not judging a book by it cover. Even thou Jim was huge and scary he was one of the nice people.

Migraine Headaches

Jaquelyn Ballentine HE 101 Blua 10 November 2008 Migraine headaches What are migraine headaches? Where do they come from? How can you help prevent them? Migraine headaches cannot really just be simplified down to just one classification. There are many determining factors when classifying one.One type of migraine is a migraine without aura; this is probably the most common form of a migraine. These migraines can last anywhere between 4-72 hours non-stop, which can be pretty painful. Typical characteristics of this are unilateral location, pulsating quality, moderate or severe intensity, aggravation by routine physical activity and association with nausea and/or photophobia(sensitivity to bright light) or phonophobia(sensitivity to sound or noise). These symptoms can very much interfere with daily life and routines.The next type of a migraine is a migraine with aura, this is the second most commonly seen form of a migraine, and people who suffer from these might also suffer from migra ines without aura. The symptoms of a migraine with aura usually follow the symptoms of a migraine without aura. To diagnose this type of migraine it must follow the following criteria 1. Aura consisting of at least one of the following, but no muscle weakness or paralysis: fully reversible visual symptoms (flickering lights, spots, lines, or loss of vision) fully reversible sensory symptoms (pins and needles/numbness) fully reversible dysphasia (speech disturbance) 2.Aura has at least two of the following characteristics: visual symptoms affecting just one side of the field of vision and/or sensory symptoms affecting just one side of the body, at least one aura symptom develops gradually over more than 5 minutes and/or different aura symptoms occur one after another over more than 5 minutes, or each symptom lasts from 5-60 minutes. The signs and symptoms of a migraine vary among different people. Therefore, what is experienced before, during, and after a migraine cannot be exactly d efined. There are about 4 phases 1.The prodrome, which occurs hours or days before the headache, 2. The aura, which immediately precedes the headache, 3. The pain phase, also known as the headache phase, and 4. The postdrome. The pendrome phase: prodromal symptoms occur in 40-60% of all migraine sufferers. This phase may consist of altered mood, irritability, depression or euphoria, fatigue, yawning, excessive sleepiness, craving for certain foods (chocolate), stiff muscles (especially in the neck), constipation or diarrhea, increased urination, and other visceral symptoms.These symptoms occur usually between hours and days before the headache. Next is the pain phase. The typical migraine is unilateral, throbbing, and moderate to severe and can be aggravated by physical activity. Though the pain may be bilateral at the onset or start on one side and become generalized. These can last anywhere from 4-72 hours in adults and from about 1-48 hours in children. The frequency of these mig raines is extremely variable, from few in an entire life time to several times in a week. Te head pain also varies greatly in intensity.Then postdrome phase: the patient may feel tired; have head pain, feel â€Å"hung-over†, gastrointestinal symptoms, mood changes, and weakness. Some people feel unusually refreshed or euphoric after an attack. Where as others fell depressed. For some patients a 5-6 hour nap may reduce the pain, but slight headaches may still occur when standing or sitting quickly. Normally these symptoms will vanish after rest. Migraines are underdiagnosed and misdiagnosed. The diagnosis of migraine without aura according to the International Headache Society, can be made according to the following criteria, the â€Å"5, 4, 3, 2, 1 criteria†. or more attacks, 4 hours to 3 days in duration, 2 or more of-unilateral location, pulsating quality, moderate to severe pain, aggravation by or avoidance of routine physical activity, 1 or more accompanying sympto ms (nausea and/or vomiting, photophobia, phonophobia). A migraine trigger is any factor that, on exposure or withdrawal, leads to the development of an acute migraine headache. Triggers fall into different categories such as behavioral, environmental, infectious, dietary, chemical, or hormonal.Migraine attacks may be triggered by: allergic reactions, bright lights, loud noises, and certain odors or perfumes, physical or emotional stress, changes in sleep patterns, smoking or exposure to smoke, skipping meals, alcohol, menstrual cycle fluctuations, birth control pills, hormone fluctuations during the menopause transition, tension headaches, foods containing tyramine (red wine, aged cheese, smoked fish, chicken livers, figs, and some beans), MSG or nitrates like bacon hot dogs or salami, and other foods such as chocolate, nuts, peanut butter, avocado, banana, citrus, onions, dairy products, and fermented or picked foods.Conventional treatment usually focuses on three areas: trigger av oidance, symptomatic control, and preventive drugs. Patients often find that the recommended migraine treatments are not 100% effective at preventing migraines, and sometimes may not be affective at all. Once all diagnostic information has been collected and reviewed, then the best course of action can be determined.Whether that may be drugs or simple rest; the treatment varies greatly for each patient so as of right now there is no exact treatment for migraine headaches. Thorough research is being done, and many of the experiments that are being tested are on new drugs to better treat these symptoms. Throughout my family history many of my family members have bean diagnosed with migraine headaches so I have quite an idea of what these â€Å"patients† are going through, seeing as I am one of them.These migraine headaches are extremely painful and can take you away from normal activities such as going outside because the bright light, watching TV because of the noise, or even just studying because of the nerves and other things inside your brain that can have an affect on the migraine. Many treatments have been prescribed to chronic migraine sufferers in my family, but everyone still has yet to find one that has worked efficiently. This is a problem that needs to be fixed. That is one of the main reasons that I plan to pursue my career in becoming a neurosurgeon.The fact that I am a migraine sufferer has an enormous impact on my choice of career and I am determined to go through with it. Too many people suffer everyday from migraine headaches and most people who do not suffer from these do not know the actual pain that is associated with one.Works cited Wikipedia. com – http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Migraine Migraineheadaces. com- http://www. migraineheadache. com/wsym. html Emedicinehealth. com- http://www. emedicinehealth. com/migraine_headache/article_em. htm

Introduction to JavaScript

Introduction to JavaScript JavaScript is a programming language used to make web pages interactive. It is what gives a page life- the interactive elements and animation that engage a user. If youve ever used a search box on a home page, checked a live baseball score on a news site, or watched a video, it has likely been produced by JavaScript. JavaScript Versus Java JavaScript and Java are two different computer languages, both developed in 1995. Java is an object-oriented programming language, which means it can run independently in a machine environment. It is a reliable, versatile language used for Android apps, enterprise systems that move large amounts of data (especially in the finance industry), and embedded functions for Internet of Things technologies (IoT). JavaScript, on the other hand, is a text-based programming language meant to run as part of a web-based application. When first developed, it was intended to be a compliment to Java. But JavaScript took on a life of its own as one of the three pillars of web development- the other two being HTML and CSS. Unlike Java applications, which need to be compiled before they can run in a web-based environment, JavaScript was purposely designed to integrate into HTML. All major web browsers support JavaScript, though most give users the option of disabling support for it. Using and Writing JavaScript What makes JavaScript great is that its not necessary to know how to write it to use it in your web code. You can find plenty of prewritten JavaScripts for free online. To use such scripts, all you need to know is how to paste the supplied code into the right places on your web page. Despite the easy access to prewritten scripts, many coders prefer knowing how to do it themselves. Because it is an interpreted language, no special program is required to create usable code. A plain text editor like Notepad for Windows is all you need to write JavaScript. That said, Markdown Editor might make the process easier, particularly as the lines of code add up. HTML Versus JavaScript HTML and JavaScript are complementary languages. HTML is a markup language designed for defining static webpage content. It is what gives a webpage its basic structure. JavaScript is a programming language designed for performing dynamic tasks within that page, like animation or a search box.   JavaScript is designed to run within the HTML structure of a website and is often used multiple times. If youre writing code, your JavaScript will be more easily accessible  if placed them in separate files (using  a .JS extension helps identify them). You then link the JavaScript to your HTML by inserting a tag. That same script can then be added to several pages just by adding the appropriate tag into each of the pages to set up the link. PHP Versus JavaScript PHP is a server-side language that is designed to work with the web by facilitating data transfer from server to application and back again. Content management systems like Drupal or WordPress use PHP, allowing a user to write an article that is then stored in a database and published online. PHP is by far the most common server-side language used for web applications, although its future dominance may be challenged by Node.jp, a version of JavaScript that can run on the back end like PHP but is more streamlined.

Position of Wage Labour in the United States

Position of Wage Labour in the United States Introduction One of the hefty criticisms of the early stages of industrialisation is that people were used as capital assets to facilitate the production processes particularly in the US.Advertising We will write a custom critical writing sample on Position of Wage Labour in the United States specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Discussing the impacts of capitalisation of labour on semi-skilled, unskilled, and skilled workers, Kremer points out how the workers were misused following the application of concepts of labour capitalisation during early economic times where they worked under intensively poor conditions (553). The same concept is developed by Dubofsky who argues that, in the early industrialisation age, many employers preferred low priced sources of labour such as children, females, and immigrants who were underprivileged (35). However, the contemporary labour markets of the United States views labour as a distinct resource that can be isolated from the traditional forms of capital since it is subject to controls by forces that are extrinsic to an organisation or any industry employing people. From this perspective, the focus of this research proposal is to examine whether the united State, over time, has fundamentally improved the position of wage labour or it has simply maintained the position of capital. To achieve this noble goal, statistics from the government of the United States are deployed as the primary source of data. Scholarly findings are also deployed to help in integrating the primary and secondary data findings to give a well-informed position on whether United States still clings to the position of capital or it has improved the position of wage labour. The US Department of Labour: Why was it Established? In responding to the question of whether the United States has improved the position of labour or has been maintaining the position of capital, the first chapter of the research will revi ew the circumstances that lead to the establishment of the U.S. department of labour, its mandates and its achievements in improving the welfare of the United States’ workforce.Advertising Looking for critical writing on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The chapter will argue that, in an attempt to enhance change of perception that labour can be capitalised and hence subject to operation of market forces to determine labour pricing, several improvements to wages have been realised in a number of ways since the establishment of the United States department of labour. In fact, the U.S. department of labour is mandated to promote, foster, and develop wage earners’ welfares so that their working conditions can be improved coupled with making sure that they are engaged in profitable employments. For precise realisation of its mandates, the U.S. department of labour is given the authority to administer various federal laws of labour, which are meant to guarantee all the employees rights to working conditions. The US Employers Deprived of their Role to Determine Wages Under the ideologies of labour capitalisation, the employer has the supreme ability to determine the right wages to be paid to the workers so that the production process can proceed within the limits of the acceptable levels of profitability. The main question addressed in chapter two of the research will be the manner in which this supreme ability of the employers has been eroded in the United States’ labour markets so that the position of the labour wages is improved. To achieve this goal, the chapter will investigate issues such as role of the United States’ government in influencing the workers coupled with their movements. In this regard, it will be maintained that the main goal of government engagement in the workers’ movements is to ensure that the workers’ unions are d emocratic and independent from coercion by the employing agents. This will confirm Kremer’s argument that states’ role in enhancing freedom of labour unions in United States is aimed at ensuring that workers are shielded from being slaves of the state thus not acting as capital assets for the employers (556). According to Dubofsky, this is achieved through enactment of administrative and political policies coupled with manipulation of various legislative policies of labour unions (26).Advertising We will write a custom critical writing sample on Position of Wage Labour in the United States specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Hence, labour unions are made stable, which has the implication of making workers have the motivation of joining unions as the only way of fighting for their wages, rights, and resolution of wages conflicts with the employers without the risks of being sacked. Additionally, the chapter will argue that the position of the labour wages has been incredibly improved through the creation of social stability emanating from the brave liberal ideas of corporate leaders that denying labourers the freedom and extension of ideologies of exploitation of humans’ resource are not the avenues for enhancing profitability. The US Labour Legal Frameworks Still in chapter 2, as a mechanism of setting the theoretical constructs of the research, the chapter will also consider scholarly criticisms and insights as to whether the United States, through its labour legal frameworks, has altered the agrarian society’s social, political, and economic welfare of the workers. In this argument, the chapter will draw the lesson learnt in the 19th century’s riots against establishment of power hegemonies. It is contended by Huff that such riots lead to the emergence of new demands, which truncate to making the United States workforce have both cultural and social autonomy in the work places (247). This autonomy was a major stepping-stone towards the creation of enabling platforms for workers to claim for wages that are commensurate to their efforts put in the production process without the fear of being prejudiced by the employers. The acquired autonomy also made employees to incredibly engage in labour strikes. Indeed, due to this autonomy, neither the employers nor the government managed to curtail the efforts for the workers to campaign for better wage positions. For instance, President Roosevelt’s government never succeeded in pushing for the legislative demands enacted by the American federation of labour (Lane and Pasteur 716). With this failure, the federation had no option rather than to link up with the Woodrow Wilson regime to promote the quests placed by employees. This resulted to an elementary increment of wage position of the workers.Advertising Looking for critical writing on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Therefore, exempting labour markets from the action of free market forces is an immense challenge. However, one way of doing this is setting minimum wages. The application of this approach to enhancing wage position of the workers is discussed in chapter three of the research. Setting Minimum Wages In any capitalistic economy, when the free market forces are permitted to regulate labour market dynamic, wage inequalities are produced. To enhance equality, Lalibertà © argues, â€Å"a strong minimum wage can help make a genuine difference in outcomes† (8). Setting minimum wages prevents the emergence of low wage employees coupled with continued wage inequity growth. The debate on minimum wages is widely controversial since moral considerations as to what comprises a minimum wage that would enable workers together with their families to sustain their lives come into play. Arguably, setting of minimum wages is meant to ensure that employers do not employ groups that are vulnerabl e to capitalisation such as emigrants and children by virtue of the fact they would be willing to accept low wages and hence be capitalised so that the employers reap optimal profits at their expense. In the quest to improve the labour wages through the perspectives of minimum wages, concepts of living wages have emerged in the US’ labour market terminologies. According to Luce, â€Å"Basic Family Budget Calculator developed by the Economic Policy Institute, the Self-Sufficiency Standard, developed by Diana Pierce, and the Wider Opportunities for Women† (13) are some of the approaches that are used to compute living wages. Both of these approaches deploy the data collected by the US’ government institutions to arrive at an estimation of minimum housing cost, transportation, childcare, food, taxes, and healthcare costs. When all these costs are summed up, the government, through the department of labour, is able to come up with the total annual income required fo r general workers to sustain their lives. The block figure is then converted into hourly pay rates. The figure arrived at is usually higher than the minimum wage set by federal governments (Luce 14). Another approach of ensuring that the wage position of the employees is improved is setting the minimum wages at levels that would enable workers who work full time to attain the federal poverty line. Primary Sources Amid the attempts by United States to put in place mechanisms of improving the wages position of the workers, statistics indicates that instances of non-compliance to the guidelines are still evident. For instance, according to Sates Department of Labour: Wages and Hour Division 2007 statistics facts sheet, â€Å"results for the fiscal year 2007 show a total of 4,672 minors who are found illegally employed, an average of 3.7 minors illegally employed per investigation† (Para 10). Many of these violations involve situations where children who are under the age of 16 w ere found to work for many hours, very late in the night, and or very early in the morning. This is clearly a violation of working hour standards. With regard to United Sates Department of Labour: Wages and Hour Division 2006 statistics facts sheet, â€Å"WHD assessed nearly $3 million in child labour civil money penalties in the fiscal year 2006† (Para. 9). On the other hand, with regard to United States Department of Labour: Wages and Hour Division 2007 statistics facts sheet, WHD collected â€Å"nearly $4.4 million in child labour civil money penalties in fiscal year 2007† (Para.10). In 2008, according to the United States Department of Labour Employment Standards Administration, this figure reduced only by 0.2 million to stand at 4.2 million U.S. dollars (5). This statistics indicates that the idea of capitalisation of labour is still ingrained within the minds of some employers. Table showing Preliminary third-quarter 2012 productivity measures as a percent change from previous quarter, at Annual rate (Q to Q) and from same quarter a year ago (Y to Y) Nonfarm businesses businesses Manufacturing Durable manufacturing Non durable manufacturing sector Q to Y Q to Y Q to Y Q to Y Q to Y Q to Y Q to Y Q to Y Q to Y Q to Y productivity 1.9 1.5 1.5 1.4 -0.4 1.5 -0.7 3.9 -0.1 -0.8 output 3.2 3.3 2.7 3.2 -0.6 4.1 -1.0 7.4 0.0 0.5 hours 1.3 1.8 1.2 1.8 -0.2 2.6 -0.4 3.3 0.1 1.3 Hourly compensation 1.8 2.6 1.9 2.6 1.2 0.6 0.2 0.1 2.9 1.5 Real hourly compensation -0.4 0.9 -0.4 0.9 -1.1 -1.1 -2.0 -1.6 0.6 -0.2 Unit labour costs -0.1 1.1 0.4 1.2 1.5 -0.8 0.9 -3.7 3.0 2.4 Source: United States Department of Labour Bureau statistics (2) Discussion: The Way forward for the US Labour In the last chapter of the research; chapter 4, discussions and inferences will be drawn on the capacity of United States to precisely shun from capitalisation of labour as an endeavour to improve labour positions. However, it is crucial to note that alleviat ion of permitting market forces to determine labour prices rather than putting in place policies for setting minimum wages is driving the production sector into difficulties. This perhaps explains why there has been massive relocation of the United States-based factories such as Addidas to base their productions in Asia. In the new production regions, such companies have been accused of exploitation of workers in the quest for enhancing productivity. For instance, Nike and Addidas have been accused of child labour and paying very low wages to their employees in the foreign-based production factories. In context of this example, the question that remains is whether the approaches of wage improvements adopted by the US are failing thus prompting it to revert to the early industrialisation age where labour was capitalised. Conclusion Capitalisation of labour means that people working in industries could be optimised to help in yielding optimal profitability. However, the paper argued t hat this was a concept applied in the agrarian society. Due to societal transformations, the paper holds that the United States has improved labour wages since the age of agrarian revolution rather than focusing on the ideologies of labour capitalisation. Nevertheless, due to an intensive search for a mechanism of making the industrial sector competitive, there have been attempts by many firms such as Addidas and Nike to relocate to regions where labour costs are low. Consequently, a dilemma surfaces about whether labour market forces should be applied to determine the pricing for labour, or wages need to be set to certain minimum levels as a mechanism of improving them. Dubofsky, Melvin. The State and Labour in Modern America. North Carolina: The University of North Carolina Press, 1994. Print. Huff, Ann. â€Å"Persistent Effects of Job Displacement: The Importance of Multiple Job Losses.† Journal of Labour Economics 15.2 (1997): 165-253. Print. Kremer, Michael. â€Å"The O-Ring Theory of Economic Development.† Quarterly Journal of Economics 108.12(1993): 551-627. Print. Lalibertà ©, Pierre. â€Å"Social justice and growth: the role of the minimum wage.† International Journal of Labour Research 4.1(2012): 7-10. Print. Lane, John, and Michael Pasteur. â€Å"The Low-Wage Labour Market: Challenges and Opportunities for Economic Self-Sufficiency.† Journal of Labour Economics 16.5 (1998): 702-716. Print. Luce, Sophanie. â€Å"Living wage policies and campaigns: lessons from the United States.† International Journal of Labour Research 4.1(2012): 12-45. Print. United Sates Department of Labour. Wages and Hour Division: 2007 Statistics Facts Sheet, 2007. Web. United Sates Department of Labour. Wages and Hour Division: 2006 Statistics Facts Sheet, 2006. Web. United States Department of Labour Bureau statistics. Economic News Release, 2012. Web. United States Department of Labour Employment Standards Administration. Wage and Hour Di vision: Wage And Hour Collects Over $1.4 Billion In Back Wages For Over 2million Employees Since Fiscal Year 2001, 2008. Web.